The History Behind Hate Crime and the Existing Legislation Essay

The History Behind Hate Crime and the Existing Legislation Many political scientists and researchers to a number of policy arenas in the United States ranging from corporal punishment to the quality of urban life have applied Daniel Elazar’s concept of political cultures. For a vast majority of these policy programs, a considerable correlation has been found to exist between the region examined and its approach to a specific policy. Elazar focused on three primary political cultures: the Moralist political culture (MPC), the Individual political culture (IPC), and the Traditional political culture (TPC). These cultures have served as a basis for explaining the difference that exist in the political, social, and personal facets of each respective region. These ideas have been consistent throughout the course of this nation’s history, existing even in present times. I have chosen to focus on a policy program that has demanded a great deal of attention in more recent times, namely in the past few years: hate crime policy. With mor e widespread media coverage, hate crimes have become more prevalent and more publicized than ever before. The Benjamin Smith shootings and the murder of Matthew Shepard are only two examples of recent crimes, which have been considered hate crimes that have promoted politicians and legislators to address this ever-growing problem and formulate a solution. This paper will attempt to define and uncover the history behind hate crime and the existing legislation. Furthermore, I will explain my own hypothesis then examine regional difference in the approaches to hate crimes and compare and contrast them to Daniel Elazar’s idea of political cultures. My own hypothesis is that moralist cultures will have been the first to initiate hate crime policy and be most likely to have such policies followed by individualist, then traditionalist political cultures. Hate Crime: Definition and History Every since the body of James Byrd was found in pieces on a road in east Texas, the authorities have been struggling to bring charges to reflect the horror of the crime. â€Å"Murder seems too pat: Mr. Byrd was chained to a truck and dragged for almost three miles†. In Texas, simple murder does not carry the death penalty. But Mr. Byrd was black, apparently murdered by racists, so there is a call for this killing to be labeled a â€Å"hate crime†, for whi... ...tiation of Hate Crime Law in the United States, 1978 to 1995: Innovation and Diffusion in the Criminalization of Bigotry.† American Sociological Review. April, 1998: 286-307. 4. Haider-Markel, Donald P. â€Å"The Politics of Social Regulatory Policy: State and Federal Hate Crime Policy and Implementation Effort.† Political Research Quarterly. March, 1998: 69-88. 5. â€Å"An Unwise Road in Texas.† The Economist. 20 June, 1998: 17. 6. â€Å"The Hate Debate.† The New Republic. 2 November, 1998: 7-8. 7. â€Å"1999 Hate Crime Laws: Anti-Defamation League.† URL: http://www.adl.org/99hatecrime/constitutionality.html 8. â€Å"The White House Conference On Hate Crimes.† URL: http://www.whitehouse.gov/Initiatives/OneAmerica/whc.html 9. Elazar article 10. U.S. Census Bureau Statistical Abstracts of the United States: 1998. â€Å"No. 344- Hate Crimes- Number of Incidents, Offenses, Victims, and Offenders by Bias Motivation: 1996.† Statistical Abstract of the United States: 1998. 21 September, 1998: 215. 11. Wirt Lecture 12. Sharkansky article. 13. â€Å"Map of State Statutes: 1999 Hate Crime Laws.† URL: http://www.adl.org/99hatecrime/provisions.html

Hp and Compaq Merger

Webster University November 6, 2011 Hewlett- Packard Company, referred to as HP, is an American multinational information technology company. Its headquarters is based in California USA. The company was founded in 1939 built in a Palo Alto garage by Bill Hewlett and David Packard and is now one of the world’s largest information technology companies operating worldwide in almost every country. It has 87,000 employees in 120 countries. HP specializes in developing, manufacturing computing, data storage, and networking hardware. In addition it designs software and delivers services. A majority of HP’s product lines include storage devices as well as computing devices, and a wide range of imaging products and last but not least, printers. Its products are widely available to households, small to medium sized businesses, as well as through online distribution, office supply retailers, and major technology vendors. It also caters to enterprises and office supply retailers. The late 90’s brought innovation but low sales growth, as HP faced troubles in keeping up with the changing market. It was at the point where Carly Fiorina was appointed as the new CEO. The focus then became on customer and internet sales. Carly revamped organizational structure. This led to a revenue growth however, share prices still declined and HP faced recession in 2001, which led to pay cuts and layoffs. Stock prices continues to soar which led to the consideration of acquisitions. HP is committed to the development of products, information, and services that are widely accessible to everyone including those with disabilities. The commitment it provides in catering to everyone supports its diversity and â€Å"Total Customer Experience† objectives ensure that its technological benefits serve all. According to Dave Packard, â€Å"it is necessary that people work together in unison toward common objectives and avoid working at cross purposes at all levels if the ultimate in efficiency and achievements is to be obtained. † HP has a vision of diversity as being a main factor that drives success as well as personal leadership from everyone within the company. Their competitive advantage allows them to learn and to adjust through the depth of their values. It is vital for HP managers to come together regularly in order to discuss and assess the â€Å"HP Way† which ensures their top priorities through lower costs, information technology system improvements, increase in business growth, an improvement in efficiency, and customer service improvements. HP is organized in the form of two groups. The first is the Business Customer Organization, and the second group is the Consumer Business Organization (Wagonfeld, Rubenstein, and Block, 2001). Both groups are supplied through the following product divisions: Computing systems, imaging and printing systems, and embedded personal systems. In addition HP services are available which works between the consumer, the product, and the groups. Major product lines include personal computer (PC), desktop and mobile personal computers, software solutions, copiers, scanners, networking solutions, and consulting services. In addition, the company’s support group offers consulting, education, and solution financing to its users. Compaq was founded in 1982 by Rod Canion, Jim Harris, and Bill Murto and its headquarters is based in Houston, Texas. The three founders invested $1,000 each in order to begin the formation of their company and began their first product, a portable personal computer to run all the software being developed at the time for the IBM PC. Four years into operation, the company was able to pave way to the Fortune 500 more rapidly than any other company in the same domain. Compaq products were developed and placed in three different groups. The first group is the Enterprise Computing Group which designs and develops servers, internet products, and networking products. The second group is the Commercial PC Group which designs and develops commercial desktops, and small and medium business solutions. The final group is the Consumer PC Group which designs and develops consumer products such as desktops, printers, and portables. Compaq markets its products mainly to consumers from the following sectors: Business, home, government and education. In 2001, Compaq and HP engaged in a merger. The new HP will become the second largest global technology provider with around $87 billion in revenue as well as many opportunities to create competitive advantages with their existing resources. It then had the ability to provide a multiple number of solutions and will be in position of competitive advantage in comparison to the leader IBM. Prior to Compaq’s merger with HP, its ticker symbol was CPQ, however after the merger its ticker symbol is now HPQ. . The management’s reasons for the merger included the following: Improved economics and innovation, complementary eadership in key markets, strengthened business provides critical mass in key growth market, and financial benefits. First of all, combining HP and Compaq would result in creating economies of scale, direct sales channel, and a more flexible distribution channel. Second of all, the merger would facilitate the industry leading product line in the entire server category, and gain a broader portfolio of pro ducts and services. Thirdly, having around 65,000 IT architects in 160 countries accelerates growth and leads to better customer loyalty. Finally, financially, it estimated $2. 5 billion in annual cost savings by mid 2004 and the merger would also allow HP to increase investment in the imaging and printing business. Reasons against the merger were the following: HP’s business portfolio would be worse due to an increased exposure in unprofitable PC business, and the PC market was expected to shrink. Second of all, the integration risk of the proposed merger is substantial as no merger involving computer companies had ever met expectations, and analysts estimated a revenue loss that could be as high as 15-17%. Third of all, it would have a negative impact on HP stockholders as a dramatic drop in stock price was announced after the proposal of the merger and Wall Street predicted low estimates for future financial performance. A fourth reason against the merger is that HP’s strategic position will not materially improve as neither company had a profitable business model nor successfully transitioned into a direct distribution model. Furthermore, a merger would not materially improve HP’s market position in high profit areas. Despite the debate for or against the merger, there was a 51. % approval margin and supporters believed it was the best option available for both firms. SWOT analysis: The strengths of the merger are Compaq-Server category and overall storage, HP high-end storage, and strong brand recognition. HP and Compaq were to save $2. 5 billion in operating costs by 2004. After their merger, there was an increase in cash flow. The weaknesses they faced are the develo pment of a direct distribution model, consulting and outsourcing (low market share), and Compaq printers (low market share). Consumers were unsure about the reliability of new products, and HP’s market share was to increase to 18. % only. The opportunities they were faced with are the improvement the merger could have of economics and innovation namely economies of scale. It also strengthened market leadership in storage, and market growth in IT services. Finally, the threats posed were the increases of pressure by Dell in the lower-end server market, and the entrants of IBM and Dell into the market that further eroded more market share. Michael E. Porter draws upon Industrial Revolution economics in order to derive the five forces that determine the competition and the overall profitability of a market. For example, an unattractive industry would be one that combines the five forces that drives down overall profitability. The first force in Porter’s model is the threat of the entry of new competitors. Profitable markets that yield high returns and will therefore attract new firms. The result of this is many new entrants which eventually decrease profitability for all firms in the industry. The merger that occurred between Compaq and HP raises a moderate level of threat for new entrants due to economies of scale that are achieved by the already existing players, and this is what results in their competitive advantage. In addition, there is need for high capital requirement for any new player that wants to enter the market. Another factor is product differentiation which results in a constant need for the improvement in technology in order to grab consumers’ attention. A third factor is moderate consumer switching costs. An example of this is the ease for customers to change their laptops due to the standardization of most computer components. In addition, the access to distribution channels makes it easy for consumers to approach the desired products, due to the availability of direct customer service and both internet and computer retailers. The second force in Porter’s model is the bargaining power of buyers. Moderate consumer switching costs makes it easier for consumers to be able to change their laptops, due to standardization of most computer components. A low number of suppliers are providing HP and Compaq products to consumers. In addition, suppliers operate with high fixed costs, which is the main reason there are a low number of suppliers. The third force in the model is the bargaining power of suppliers, which consists of a high number of customers that are fragmented and providing products to them is not an easy task, which is why suppliers bargain highly. There are however, a few large suppliers which are trustworthy, reliable, and recognized. They provide good quality raw material such as Intel and Hitachi. A fourth force in Porter’s model is the threat of substitutes. Switching costs for consumers is high because of low price HP Compaq laptops that indicate its target towards the middle class and upper middle class segment. These people find it harder to switch from one product to another which is why they are more likely to remain loyal. In addition, frequent product introductions and constant improvements in price serve as a cause for moderate threat. A final force in the model is rivalry. High fixed costs in the cost for setup of manufacturing units increases fixed cost, which makes it more difficult for the existing players to exit the market. Also, constant changes in products and price makes competition stiffer. It is important to note that the two big players that hold the top two market share spots in the computer hardware industry are IBM and Dell. IBM has strong research and development and marketing and gave rise to PC industry with Microsoft Windows OS. IBM global services also have strong customer assistance. The latter is a direct business model with low inventory costs, and Dell’s close relationships with its consumers helped build loyalty, and it ranked number one in the global PC market in 2001. In July 1999, Carly Fiorina was appointed as the CEO of HP, and the board believed she was the saviour of HP. Her goal was to reinvent the company according to the HP way. Her motto was: â€Å"Preserve the best and reinvent the rest. † At the time Carly took over, it was a collection of independent businesses, each selling a different kind of product. Her role was to execute an â€Å"e-services† strategy that would unify them into one profitable whole. After merging with Compaq, the main strategies that are focused on are the following: Sustainability where the new HP must both retain and grab additional market share, Uniqueness by being the largest IT company world-wide, value added by which the merger must demonstrate success, an increased product line through enhancement, adaptation to market forces through flexibility, and the retention of customer base through stability. Fiorina promised balanced revenue and earnings growth, targeting 12%-15% growth in 2000. The problem was that Carly Fiorina held too many offices as she was CEO, COO, and Chairman of the board. This led to an abuse of power, poor decision-making, and miscommunication. Both Compaq and HP were in an unwinnable price war with Dell. The merger of HP and Compaq clearly benefited both companies. From Porter’s five forces model of HP-Compaq, it is evident that there are moderate entry barriers, moderate threat of substitutes, high competition, moderate bargaining of power of buyers, and high bargaining power of suppliers. HP focuses on making technology more simple for its users from individual customers to large businesses. Its top priorities are to lower costs, improve its technology systems, increase business growth, and improve both efficiency and customer service. Despite the fact that both HP and Compaq were mature companies before the merger, the merger is still considered to be under restructuring, which resulted in the company losing some of its ground as a mature company. Blending the culture of both companies resulted in more innovative ideas and is now more supportive in providing more effective customer service. Through the successful merger of HP and Compaq, their costs were reduced by $3 billion annually. From the information provided above, it is important to note that the introduction of improved and more innovative products should be of focus as competition in existing players is high in order to gain market share and competitive position in the market. The company is focusing on its strategies in order to ensure achieving all business priorities by adjusting and optimizing the product line and enhancing high end services. When analyzing a merger between two companies like Compaq and HP, it is worth noting that if we were to do a segment analysis of this merger, a different conclusion would be drawn than an increase of profits in the merged firms. In a segment analysis, the combined firms would adversely lose money while trying to gain advantage over its product line in the business sector for example. A large business segment would only see a small increase in profits in this case. Depending on the elasticity in the market and the relevant position of the firms involved, the effects of a merger would vary significantly across different segments. For example, if Dell and Compaq were to have merged in 1998, it would have resulted in a negative consumer surplus. This in turn allows us to assume that the use of segment analysis can be valuable in assessing what impacts a merger could result in in various markets that have different consumer segments. The evolution of the market also plays an important factor. In the case of the HP-Compaq merger, if the same merge had occurred at a different period like 4 years earlier there would have been a smaller consumer welfare as opposed to the results yielded in its 2001 merger. Baker and Breshnan (1985) proposed a strategy of demand and supply to evaluate the effects of mergers. Products and consumers are observed by market participants according to Baker et. al, which in turn will be correlated with equilibrium prices which will lead the price coefficient to be â€Å"biased towards zero†. Furthermore, providing the consumers with a chance to not purchase any of the products available in regards to personal computers plays an important role as it allows the uniform price increase to change the quantities purchased. In addition, by using the demand parameters that are estimated, price-cost margins and marginal costs can be calculated without the use of actual cost information. According to Nevo (2000), in the HP-Compaq merger, â€Å"marginal costs and the number of products are held constant in their pre-merger level†. Furthermore, post-merger equilibrium elasticities are calculated based on the demand parameters in the pre-merger phase. From this, we can make the assumption that both consumer preferences and the value of the good did not change after the firms merged. However, one cannot ignore the fact that changes in the strategy after the merger took place accounted for price sensitivity and particularly changes outside the industry that could impact demand for the product places doubt on whether such an assumption is valid. A way one can look at the estimates of different segments is by looking at the aggregate demand elasticities over time. This is portrayed in a report by Foncel and Invaldi (2000). It is important to note that the total elasticity for the whole market is increasing over time. This is turn means that consumers are being less sensitive as the market is approaching its maturity, this would lead to the expectation that the demand for personal computers would be more elastic. Income effect plays a big role here as soaring prices means that purchasing a PC would become a smaller share of the budget over time. In addition, further developments in software widened the use of computers and have now become a necessity in our daily lives. The total elasticity of the home segment is the one that faces the largest rise. The reason for this is that this segment became less elastic over time due to two reasons. The first reason was due to high income elasticity and the second was due to higher usage of several developments in other domains such as the internet. Qualitative analysis of coordinated effects in the HP-Compaq merger is essential in understanding the formation of the merger that took place between both companies. In order to coordinate firms that are looking into merging should be able to come to an agreement which is not always easy as products in both firms are complex and differentiated. Compaq and HP should monitor one another’s behaviour closely to detect factors such as undercutting, and keeping rivals out by â€Å"collectively coordinating behaviour between them†, Stigler (1964). The distribution of brands and market shares varies both in time and across markets. Most firms are multi product firms which is why it is essential to bear in mind that there is a substantial number of products. Another important factor here is that firms may face elastic demands which arise from the consumers’ substitution of products in quality segments. In addition, market transparency ensures that all coordinating oligopolists are aware of the changes in the evolving markets. In the HP-Compaq merger, there are several market features that pave way for coordination in the server industry and others that prevent it from occurring. Also, competitors like Dell and IBM did not try to stand in the way of the merger. According to Freidman (1971), the merger between HP and Compaq affects the incentive to cooperate, yet it actively decreases the firms’ incentives to cooperate in a strategic manner. Freidman also goes on to portray that his model does not take into account either the entry or exit of a product, nor uncertainty. The reduction of costs, and enrichment of revenues, growth of the industry, and need of product diversification are several reasons why mergers and acquisitions have become proliferate over the last decade or so. When analyzing the financial results of the HP-Compaq merger, it is important to look at the profitability and efficiency ratios of the companies in the pre-merger and post-merger stages. In order to maximize profit and minimize products, HP and Compaq understand and adjust to the constantly shifting and changing markets, which technologies need acceleration, value creation for its consumers, and global development which serves as a shield against competitors like Dell and IBM. It is essential for a firm to understand its position in the industry especially in a market that is saturated with competition like the computer industry where competitors such as Dell, IBM, Toshiba, Sony, Vaio, are present. An organization must be able to identify the factors that have an effect on the firm such as its suppliers, consumers, and competitors. Those factors enable the industry to know how to maintain itself in such a marketplace in order to be in a â€Å"win-win† situation. One of the benefits that resulted from the HP-Compaq merger is the following. Both firms were in a no win situation price war with Dell. The merger resulted in Compaq and HP to stop competing with one another. In February 2001, Dell, the biggest competitor of HP-Compaq launched a campaign to become the largest competitor in the PC industry. In an attempt to grab the market share, Dell announced and intentional undercut in its prices by 10%. Although some mergers produce marginal results or lead to the sinking of companies, HP and Compaq’s merger created a new corporate culture. This helped the company focus its product development efforts. The company improved its position in a number of core markets. By completing the merger when they did, HP was able to position itself by taking the extra leap ahead of trends that were working against the two companies when they existed as independent entities. In addition, its commitment to cultural change helped the merger go through a smoother transition, although HP took certain measures like reducing its workforce size, the change of 2 CEO’s, and the reorganization of the management’s structure. â€Å"The HP-Compaq merger established what it had set out to. Its main aim was to provide the essential mass and ensure a long term-role in an industry that was undergoing a fundamental transition,† according to Jean S. Bozman, research vice president in IDC’s world-wide Server Group. Furthermore, he added that â€Å"this deal enabled the merged company to grow revenue and profits in an increasingly competitive marketplace. † References: Anon (2002): Investor relations- taking a fair share of the responsibility, Strategic Direction. Bradford: Vol. 18, Iss. 8, pgs. 13-16. Ahles, Andrea (2002): Hewlett-Packard Executives Say Its Company Is on Track to Produce Lasting Benefits, Knight Ridder Tribune Business News. Washington: Aug 28, pg. 1. Anon (2010): HP Hires Gail Galuppo to Lead Wordlwide Strategy and Marketing for Imaging and Printing Group, Business Wire. New York. Brown, Meredith, Kubek, Gary (2002): Court Demands Proof of HP-Compaq vote buying International Financial Law Review, London: Vol 21, Iss. 7; pg 25. Roy, Preeta; Roy, Probir (2004): The Hewlett Packard- Compaq Computers Merger: Insight from the Resource-Based View and the Dynamic Capabilities Perspective, Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge. Hollywood: Vol. 5, Iss. Pgs 7,8. Freidman J. (1971), â€Å"A Non-cooperative Equilibrium for Supergames. † Review of Economic Studies, 38, 1-12. Stigler, G. J. (1964) â€Å"A theory of Oligopoly†, Journal of Political Economy, 72, 44-61. Baker, J. P. and T. F. Bresnahan (1985). â€Å"The Gains from Merger or Collusion in Product-Di ¤erentiated Industries†, Journal of Industrial Economics, 33, 427-444. Nevo, A. (2000a). â€Å"Mergers with Di ¤erentiated Products: The Case of the Ready-to- eat Cereal Industry†, RAND Journal of Economics, 31, 3, 395-421. Foncel, J. and M. Invaldi (2001). â€Å"Operating System Prices in the Home PC Market†, mimeo, University of Toulouse. Bozman, J. S. (2006). HP-Compaq merger a success five years on: IDC. URL http://www. itwire. com/it-industry-news/strategy/6879-hp-compaq-merger-a-success-five-years-on-idc

Lifespan Development Influences of Nature and Nurture on a 4 Year Old Child - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2218 Downloads: 4 Date added: 2017/09/11 Category Advertising Essay Did you like this example? HS1005 Environmental Influences Throughout this assignment I will be discussing the development of a four year old child. With the support of relevant theories including the work of Jean Piaget and Erik Erikson, I will discuss the environmental influences that promote the physical, cognitive and psychosocial development of a four year old child. I will also review the importance of play in the child’s development and propose an activity of play that would enhance the child’s development. In the world of a four year old child there is a lot of changing. For in the fourth year in most western societies this is the time they will most commonly begin attending kindergarten/preschool. Energetic and imaginative best describe the 4-year-old. Imagination suddenly becomes greater than life for the 4-year-old, who often confuses reality and make-believe. Four-year-olds feel good about the things they can do, show self-confidence, and are willing to try new adventures (Lesia Oesterreich, 2010). Growth of the body and brain, sensory capacities, motor skills and health are all parts of physical development (Papalia, Olds, Feldman, 2010). Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Lifespan Development Influences of Nature and Nurture on a 4 Year Old Child" essay for you Create order By the fourth year the child has attained greater control over the smaller muscles, improving drawing skills and abilities to tie shoelaces and fasten buttons. Their balance also improves, so they also are now better at running, hopping, skipping and throwing balls. According to child psychologist and theorist Erik Erikson, the four year old child is according to his theory, in the initiative versus guilt stage. This means the child is becoming more independent and confident in their abilities. This initiative is moderated by guilt as the child realises that their initiative may place them in conflict with others (Kail Cavanaugh, 2004). All young children need help to establish patterns of good eating and exercise for their present well being and for the years ahead. Routines can be very affective in promoting physical development. Routines involve repetition. Repetition involves predictability. Predictability involves stability. Stability involves security. Kids crave routines because routines make kids feel safe and secure. On a very basic level routines reassure children that their needs will be met. Routines also provide opportunities for children to experience success in what they are doing, which then promotes self-control and self-esteem (Elkins, 2010). Family households can influence how easily a child could take to routine. Parents could set routines for a variety of things; one example is brushing teeth after meals. â€Å"Most four year olds can brush their own teeth and this self-help skill is important to a child’s independence† (LaHaye, 2008). This task can also meet Erikson’s theory of initiative versus guilt, as the child can physically perform this task with minimal assistance, meeting their need of taking on more responsibility independently. With the child routinely brushing their teeth after every meal, eventually this becomes a habit; ensuring that dental hygiene is met now and in future years. Another positive influence for physical development is kindergym. Kindergym is a movement based program accredited by gymnastics Australia, designed specifically for children around four years old. Australias Kindergym program ensures children can experience a wide range of movement activities and be encouraged to think, create, construct and solve problems with their own bodies. Kindergym kids learn to be stronger in body, motor skills, strength and coordination (YMCA Sydney, 2010). Kindergym promotes physical development, through fun activities such as balancing, jumping, throwing and climbing. This influence also supports Erikson’s theory of initiative versus guilt as they are required to perform individually with minimal assistance from others. Psychosocial development has been described as the patterns of change in emotions, personality ; social relationships (Papalia, Olds, Feldman, 2010). In addition to physical development, kindergym can also greatly influence the four year old child’s psychosocial development. The kindergym programs are exercised in group environments, with between 20 and 25 children per session. This means there are more children and less area of play. The four year old child must now learn to share and take turns to avoid confrontation and avoid the guilt associated within Erikson’s initiative versus guilt stage. The child is now learning and building on the social competencies required in creating friendships and avoiding consequences and guilt associated with fighting. Piaget’s view of the child making sense of the world through their own investigation emphasised the importance of the environment rather than other people. Since then his views have been modified to take account of the importance of social contacts. We all need other people to help us learn and young children need adults and other children (Dowling, 2010). If children can learn to be at ease with others and start to develop a social responsibility for them, then clearly this will affect their personal well being, but will also better prepare them to contribute in a larger social world (Dowling, 2010). The presence of a sibling in a child’s life can support psychosocial development. The competencies required in building friendships are learnt skills and the relationship the child builds with their sibling can offer countless opportunities to learn from one another the social skills needed to socialise and build friendships. Early sibling relationships can be fuelled by most commonly, competition for a parent’s love or support for each other as a partnership or bond built through shared experience. With the typical sibling relationship, most will be throughout the first few years fuelled by competition for their mothers love and attention. Petty bickering is usually the outcome of most quarrels, but the intervention by the mother who does not wish to witness her children fighting offers as a lesson in understanding another’s feelings and emotions and finding compromise. In contrast, a relationship where love and support is offered to each other through a partnership gained through understanding and shared experience, offers the psychosocial competencies required for building and nurturing friendships (Kramer ; Conger, 2009). The balance of support and conflict offered in a four year old child’s relationship with their sibling, provides a unique opportunity to develop social cognitive and behavioural competencies that are linked to managing conflict and anger on one hand and providing support and nurturance on the other (Kramer ; Conger, 2009). Perhaps then the balance of support and conflict in the sibling relationship may exert a positive effect in promoting psychosocial competence outside of the home, where they will need to utilise these skills in preschool to build new friendships. Cognitive development is the patterns of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning and creativity (Papalia, Olds, Feldman, 2009). Though the child may often confuse fact with fiction their mental capabilities are quite profound. They can usually count to 20, can or will quickly learn to recite their ABC’s and can differentiate between past, present and future. According to Jean Piaget the four year old child is in the pre operational stage. This is when the child learns to use language and to represent objects by images and words (Berger, 2010). Preschoolers love rhymes and songs, and singing and listening to music is frequently practised in preschool classrooms in western societies. Not only do preschoolers enjoy them, but they help children learn about numbers, letters, and sounds (ABC song, This Old Man). As childrens brains are developing at their fastest when they are very young, with 80 percent of brain development occurring by age 3, and 90 percent by age 5, music helps with making connections in the brain (Lesia Oesterreich, 2010). The brain’s multi-sensory engagement during music practice and performance enhances the same communication skills needed for speaking and reading. Musicians sharpen a specialized neural system for processing sight and sound, music and speech, which means that early musical training, can help children develop literacy skills and reduce literacy disorders (Oxford University press, 2009). Another influence that can promote cognitive development is regularly reading. Reading to children is one of the most effective paths to literacy. Children who are read to from an early age learn that reading and writing in english move from left to right and top to bottom and that words are seperated by spaces (Papalia, Olds, Feldman). If a parent routinely read with the child every night and consistently like the teeth brushing routine discussed above. Not only are they learning to sit quietly and listen but they are if encouraged to follow the story visually, they can link what they are hearing with what they are seeing. Children learn many skills when you read aloud to them. These include better vocabulary, listening skills and attention span (Barhyte, 2010). Jean Piaget believed that during the preoperational stage the child’s imagination flourishes, and language becomes a significant means of self expression and of influence from others (Berger, 2006). Reading stories without pictures can be a positive way for children to utilise their vivid imaginations and also to expand on their vocabulary. During Jean Piaget’s preoperational stage, the crucial item is the development of the ability to represent or symbolize by means of imitation, play, signs and symbols. This Piaget calls the semiotic function (Kitchener, 1986). With understanding of the semiotic function it is understood that the preoperational child learns much through the form of play. One game often played in kindergarten is ‘duck, duck, goose’. In ‘duck, duck, goose’ a group of players sit in a circle and one child (the fox) walks around the outside of the circle, tapping each child in the circle on the head, calling them duck until finally choosing one to be the goose. The goose then stands and tries to catch the fox, chasing them around the circle before the fox sits in the goose’s original place. If the goose does not catch the fox before he/she takes their seat, the goose is now the fox and the game starts again. There is a large amount the child can gain by playing games like this. As it is a group game, the child is interacting with other children and by adhering the rules; they are also required to take turns. This factor of the game helps to build on their psychosocial development. Physically the child is standing up as fast as they can are running around a large circle whilst avoiding tripping over others as they run to their place in the circle. The physical movement required to catch the ‘fox’ provides physical development. Finally once the child is placed in the ‘foxes’ role, they are required to think about which children are ducks and who it is that they will select to be the ‘goose’. This selection process requires the child to mentally plan who they will choose to be the goose and then how far it is they need to run before taking their place back in the goose’s original seat. The thinking and planning displayed in the selection process are the factors that promote cognitive development in the game. In conclusion to this paper I believe it is proven that it is others that greatly influence the four year old child. Though the child is stronger than ever before and is looking for greater independence, this age group still heavily relies on others for assistance and nurturing in many ways. I believe it is no longer solely the parent’s responsibility to care for the four year old child. Society is required to take on a larger role in caring for the children through improved preschool programs and local establishments like kindergym and even playgrounds in residential areas, which are provided by local city councils. Without the support and acceptance that can be expressed by both family members and society a four year old child’s physical, cognitive and psychosocial development can be greatly affected for both the present and future. Word Count: 1947 words. References Barhyte, D. M. (2010). Break out the funny bedtime stories: Reading activities with young children. Retrieved April 30, 2010, from https://www. eduguide. org/Parents-Library/Funny-Bedtime-Stories-Reading-1921. aspx Berger, K. S. (2006) The developing person: Through childhood and adolescence. (7th ed. ). New York, NY. : Worth publishers. Dowling, M. (2010). Young children’s personal, social and emotional development. (3rd ed. ). London: Sage publications Ltd. Elkins, M. (2010). Ready, Set, Routine!! : The Importance of Routines in Children’s Lives. Retrieved April 30, 2010, from https://www. lowershoreccrc. org/routinesarticlemelkins. htm Kail, R. V. , Cavanaugh, J. C. (2004). Human development: A lifespan view. (3rd ed. ). Belmont, California: Thompson learning Kitchener, R. F. (1986). Piaget’s theory of knowledge: Genetic Epistemology Scientific Reasoning. United States of America. : The Alpine Press. Kramer, L. Conger, K. G. (2009). Sibling as agents of socialisation. New directions for child and adolescent development, 126, 61-77. Retrieved April 22, 2010, https://www3. interscience. wiley. com/journal/123188827/abstract LaHaye, P. (2008). The growing years: 4 years, I did it myself. Retrieved April 29, 2010, from https://www. umext. maine. edu/onlinepubs/htmpubs/4247. htm Lesia Oesterreic h, M. S. (1995). Ages and stages: four year olds. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension. Retrieved April 29, 2010, from https://www. nncc. org/Child. Dev/ages. stages. 4y. html Oxford University Press. 2006). First Evidence That Musical Training Affects Brain Development In Young Children. Science Daily. Retrieved April 22, 2010, fromhttps://www. sciencedaily. com/releases/2006/09/060920093024. htm Papalia, D. , Olds, S. , Feldman, R. (2009). Human Development. (11th Ed). New York: McGraw-Hill. Papalia, D. , Olds, S. W. , Feldman, R. D. (2008). A child’s world: Infancy through Adolescence. (11th ed. ). New York, NY. : McGraw-Hill. YMCA Sydney. (2010). Get active: Kindergym. Retrieved April 28, 2010, from the YMCA Sydney website, https://www. ymcasydney. org/activity/kindergym